Urban Development Theories

Source

Modernization Thesis

Third World scholars of the 1960s and 1970s advocated that the values and institutions of the developed Western nations are replicable templates for underdeveloped nations, especially those in Asia and Africa. The thesis embraces the idea that all nations should gear towards the goal of universal development. This thought of global progress arranges the societies of the world in a scale that shows the level of development of the nations—i.e. from least to most developed. The vision of the proponents of the modernization proposal was that through international public actions the standard of living that the more affluent Western nations have achieved in three to four generations will be realized by the developing countries within one generation without paying the same magnitude of social cost.

Modernization theory pioneers like Ragnar Nurske, W. Arthur Lewis, and Walter Rostow defined development as a matter of departure from the economic, social, political and cultural backwardness of the traditional societies. Using the prosperous and expanding urban-industrial sector of richer countries as template the theorists proposed the structural transformation of the societies from an underemployed rural tradition to a productive urban-industrial order. Other proponents of the idea were also positive about the modernization scheme as it was proven successful by the precedents like the state-led economic planning demonstrated by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.

Dependency Theory 

Some scholars however expressed dissent over the idea of modernization. These contemporary opponents of the modernization theorists who were mainly Marxists arrived at the formulation of the dependency theory. The core idea of the dependency view is that Western capitalism cannot be entrusted with the advancement and industrialization of the poor countries.

The relationship between the West and the Third World is not at all beneficial to the latter. Evidence of this obvious asymmetry is the Third World's persisting underdevelopment and reliance on the capitalist giants for capital, technology, and export product market. Other antagonists of the modernization proposal like Andre Gunder Frank went even as far as rejecting capitalism in all its forms. All scholars however agree to the fact that Third World integration to the West's market has serious consequences on the former's urban hierarchy and function.

Migration Model 

Other sets of theory investigate the workings of internal migration. Two factors are observed to affect internal migration. The push dynamic encourages people to look for more promising areas of abode and work. This rural-to-urban migration cause is often related to the wish to escape poverty.

The pull dynamic is generally associated with voluntary migration. People are attracted to the city's promise of better living condition and more job opportunities. Early philosophers like Aristotle even observed that people came to the city to live the good life.

Rural-to-urban migration also has its adverse consequences. One of the obvious effects on the urban landscape that can be observed is over-urbanization. This phenomenon is characterized by proliferation of slums, inadequate water supply, uncontrolled land use and problematic waste collection and disposal. The challenge to Third World planners and government is to make policies that will reduce internal migration to a more manageable scale.

Urban Bias Theory 

Another theory related to urban development looks into poverty. Advocates of the theory argue that the physical structure for national development favor the urban area. Developments in the urban area further attract poor groups from the countryside. As a consequence of the distorted hierarchy this group of people becomes the informal sector in cities.

Studies show that one of the causes of continued poverty in the developing nations is the Western countries' excessive consumption of raw materials and natural resources of the former. This perhaps is also true with the rural-urban relationship. Rural economy is devastated by the exploitative workings of urban economy, thereby displacing more and more folks in the countryside.

Poverty breeds poverty. Social problems like criminality and unemployment can be attributed to the inequitable social and spatial structures of contemporary Philippine society. Some people are driven to exploit natural resources in an unsustainable manner. These activities have serious environmental and economic repercussions. Others consequences of poverty are malnutrition and higher infant mortality rates among the informal sector. This may be due to the fact that this group of people has limited access to medical services.

Social Darwinism 

Proponents of the urban ecology perspective suggest that the spatial structuring of the city is comparable to nature's process of invasion and succession. People likewise engage in the process of competition and adaptation. This idea perhaps sounds familiar because it resonates from Charles Darwin's idea of "survival of the fittest."

Social Darwinists believed that people, like other organisms in nature, compete for survival. And those who survive also succeed in life. One the one hand, individuals who become rich and powerful are the "fittest." On the other hand, lower socio-economic classes are the least fit. Social Darwinists came to believe that human progress depends on competition. According to the urban ecology theorists, the advantaged—i.e. the rich and strong—tend to occupy the better locations while the poor and weak settle themselves in disadvantageous sections of the city.

Neo-classical Equilibrium Theory 

Among mainstream perspectives is the neo-classical equilibrium theory. The theory attempts at explaining the structuring of the urban space in relation to market processes. The main idea behind this capitalist perspective is that the market allocates resources, including land. Another assumption is that every individual participates in the market with the sole objective of satisfying his own tastes and preferences. The same drive is inhibited only by his capacity to pay for the goods and services he wants.

The urban landscape is structured as a result of individuals and firms competing for particular sites, motivated by personal satisfaction and profitability. However, some status quo favors business firms' higher purchasing power. It is a fact that land rent is inversely related to its distance from the city center. Consequently, the firms pay more for the central locations in exchange for profitability. Because of firm preemption of more favorable locations and lower purchasing power households settle for lands in the outskirts with lower rents. This they do even it means increase in the travel distance from the work place.

The two mainstream theories—i.e. urban ecology and equilibrium—displays some important concepts related to urban development. However, both views failed to emphasize the importance of State in the urban development process. Third World trends of development exhibit State as an initiator and leader.

Historical Materialism 

Historical materialists like Castells view urban development parallel to the logic of capitalist economy's need to reproduce capital and labor. Capital is reproduced by the accumulation of profits. This is done by firms through maximum exploitation of advantageous locations that they occupy. Production space is consequently created. Creation of the consumption space is similarly done. Increase in consumption reproduces labor accordingly.

The third space created serves as a link to the production and consumption spaces. This is known as the circulation or exchange space. Some theorists propose the existence of another space, which is somehow similar to circulation or exchange space. The administrative space subsumed under circulation or exchange space accommodates the mechanisms of the State.

Circuits Theory 

Another radical theory is proposed by Harvey. In Harvey's circuits theory the built environment of the city is a direct effect of accumulation of capital which runs through the primary circuit. Investment is then switched to secondary circuit—i.e. housing, health, welfare, etc. Capital is then siphoned through education, culture, technology and defense. This tertiary circulation is encouraged through expanded policies and infrastructural development program.

Land Nexus Theory 

A different theory of radical fashion is the land nexus theory. According to A. J. Scott, problems like poverty, unemployment, criminality, etc. are not urban development problems unless they affect the spatial structuring process. Considering the limitations of previous theories Scott conceptualized the urban land nexus, a theoretical space which links the decisions and actions of firms, household and state to the spatially oriented events.

The abstract phenomenon that is land nexus is further described by Scott. He said that it is a complex dynamics that is composed of two phases: household-firm actions and State response. The theory's author also identified the main elements in this dynamic order.

The first important constituent in the spatial structuring is the private component. The main players in this component are the capital and the labor. Their economic actions lead to the allocation of land in respect to their private activities.

Conversely, the public component also helps the urban development materialize. Activities of the private sector are regulated by the State to ensure the general welfare of the former. The State develops fundamental spatial structures from which both the firms and households could benefit. Apart from this reactionary role of the public sector, the State also deals with the projections of the future. That is why the State-led urban planning as a form of intervention is justified.

Urban land nexus is further shifted by the private-public interface. This third component of urban development is what makes the process take the form of an expanding spiral. Private actions lead to State intervention, which in turn cause another set of private actions. The process is not only cyclical but also cumulative.

Serote's Framework 

Ernesto Serote tailored a framework for analyzing urban development process in the Philippines. In contrast to Scott's land nexus theory, however, Serote injected the informal sectors as important players in the built environment organization. His premise is that the inclusion of the informal sectors paints a perhaps more realistic principle of the Philippine setting.

Using Scott's outline Serote divided the firm into formal and informal sectors. Informal business firms are commonly small-scale. Most of them have inadequate permits to operate. Moreover, many of these businesses conceal the secret operations behind the haphazardly constructed buildings and spaces. There are also informal businesses perceived to be benign. Examples of these "sub-markets" are sari-sari stores and sidewalk vendors.

An equally potent sector that is a sub-sector of household is the "squatter." Unlike formal property development this "pirate urbanization" proceeds in the reverse order—i.e. occupation first, planning second. Their shelters in these communities are characterized by simple structures of light and temporary materials. Utilities like water supply, sewerage and drainage are generally considered rudimentary.

The public sector is likewise subdivided by Serote. The State is divided into the national and the local government. The former devolves its powers and resources to the latter. The local government in turn intervenes in the private economic activities in the form of town planning and urban management. The built environment consequentially feeds back operational issues to the local government and strategic issues to the national government. The national and local governments then in response reprogram their respective implicit and explicit policies.